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Ingredient research · Vitamin A

Vitamin A is an essential fat-soluble nutrient that enables normal vision, especially in dim light, and helps maintain immune defenses, skin and other epithelial tissues, growth, and reproduction. Supplementation can prevent or correct deficiency when intake or absorption is inadequate, benefiting visual, immune, and developmental health.

• Supports maternal and breast-milk vitamin A status, particularly where baseline stores are low.
• Supports hemoglobin response in some anemic or vitamin A-deficient populations, including when added to iron and folate.
• Supports reducing bacterial-vaginosis incidence and prevalence during pregnancy and postpartum follow-up in a studied deficient setting.

Ingredient research · Vitamin C

Vitamin C is an essential water-soluble nutrient that supports collagen production, antioxidant defenses, and the normal function of immune cells. Supplementation reliably prevents or corrects deficiency, can improve absorption of plant-based iron, and may modestly shorten the duration of common colds when taken regularly.

• Supports lower common-cold risk during brief periods of severe physical exercise or cold stress.
• Supports circulating Vitamin C status across studied healthy and clinical populations.
• Supports short-term blood-pressure and endothelial-function outcomes in studied adults.
• Supports fasting-glucose and HbA1c outcomes in adults with type 2 diabetes.

Ingredient research · Vitamin D

Vitamin D is a hormone-like nutrient that helps the body absorb calcium and maintain healthy bones and muscle function. Supplementation can reliably prevent or correct low vitamin D status, particularly when sun exposure is limited, while broader immune, cardiovascular, and metabolic benefits are less certain.

• Supports bone-density and fracture- or fall-related outcomes.
• Supports muscle-strength outcomes, including lower-limb strength.
• Supports glycemic-marker and insulin-sensitivity outcomes in studied metabolic populations.
• Supports respiratory-infection-risk outcomes across studied age groups.

Ingredient research · Vitamin E

Vitamin E is an essential fat-soluble antioxidant that protects cell membranes from oxidative damage and supports normal immune and nerve function. Supplementation is most useful for preventing or correcting deficiency, particularly when fat absorption is impaired; routine use has not shown broad protection against cardiovascular disease or cancer.

• Supports improvement in liver histology in adults without diabetes who have biopsy-confirmed nonalcoholic steatohepatitis.
• Supports lower CRP and malondialdehyde in studied adult populations, including people receiving hemodialysis.
• Supports short-term improvements in fasting glucose and HbA1c in adults with type 2 diabetes.

Ingredient research · Vitamin K

Vitamin K is an essential fat-soluble nutrient that activates proteins needed for normal blood clotting and bone mineralization. Supplements reliably prevent or correct deficiency and may support bone health when intake or absorption is inadequate; effects beyond this, including cardiovascular benefits, are less certain and can differ between K1 and K2 forms.

Ingredient research · Thiamine

Thiamine is vitamin B1, an essential nutrient that helps convert carbohydrates into usable energy and supports normal nerve and heart function. Supplementation reliably prevents or corrects deficiency, with particular relevance when absorption or intake is impaired, including in chronic heavy alcohol use.

• Supports depression-treatment response when used alongside standard antidepressant treatment.

Ingredient research · Vitamin B2

Vitamin B2 is riboflavin, an essential nutrient that helps enzymes release energy from food and supports normal red blood cell, skin, and nervous-system function. Supplementation reliably prevents or corrects deficiency, and regular use can reduce migraine frequency and severity in some people.

• Supports blood-pressure control in treated hypertensive adults with the MTHFR 677TT genotype.

Ingredient research · Niacin

Niacin is vitamin B3, essential for enzymes that convert food into energy and support normal skin and nervous-system function. Supplementation prevents or corrects deficiency; in high-dose nicotinic acid form it can alter cholesterol and triglycerides, but this pharmacologic use is distinct from routine nutritional supplementation.

• Supports favorable changes in selected cholesterol fractions, including LDL, HDL, and total cholesterol, in studied metabolic and diabetes populations.
• Supports favorable fasting-triglyceride changes in studied adults with diabetes or metabolic dysregulation.

Ingredient research · Vitamin B6

Vitamin B6 is an essential nutrient that helps enzymes process amino acids and supports neurotransmitter, hemoglobin, and immune function. Supplementation reliably corrects deficiency and can reduce nausea during pregnancy; outside these uses, it is most relevant when intake or absorption is inadequate.

• Supports depressive-symptom measures in premenopausal women with hormone-related contexts.

Ingredient research · Folate

Folate is vitamin B9, an essential nutrient needed for DNA synthesis, cell division, and healthy red blood cell formation. Supplementation is especially important before conception and in early pregnancy because adequate folate reliably reduces neural tube defect risk, and it can also correct folate-deficiency anemia.

• Supports homocysteine measures in women with PCOS and adults with metabolic syndrome.
• Supports insulin and beta-cell-function markers in women with PCOS or cervical intraepithelial neoplasia.
• Supports selected lipid-panel and vascular markers in women with PCOS and adults with metabolic syndrome.
• Supports selected inflammation and oxidative-stress biomarkers in PCOS, metabolic syndrome, or cervical intraepithelial neoplasia.

Ingredient research · Vitamin B12

Vitamin B12 is an essential nutrient needed for red blood cell formation, DNA synthesis, and normal nerve function. Supplementation reliably prevents or corrects deficiency—especially when intake or absorption is limited—and may improve anemia, fatigue, or neurologic symptoms caused by low B12, but is not a general energy booster when status is adequate.

• Supports vitamin B12 status and responsive deficiency markers in low-status populations, including maternal and breast-milk status during pregnancy and early lactation.

Ingredient research · Biotin

Biotin is an essential B vitamin that helps enzymes process fats, carbohydrates, and amino acids. Supplementation reliably prevents or corrects deficiency, but extra biotin has not been shown to improve hair, skin, or nails in most people who are not deficient, and high intakes can distort certain laboratory test results.

Ingredient research · Vitamin B5

Vitamin B5 is an essential nutrient used to make coenzyme A, a molecule central to releasing energy from food and building and breaking down fats. Supplementation prevents or corrects deficiency, but deficiency is uncommon and taking extra pantothenic acid has no clearly established benefit for most otherwise well-nourished people.

Ingredient research · Choline

Choline is an essential nutrient used to build cell membranes, make the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, and transport fat from the liver. Supplementation can help meet needs when dietary intake is low, with particular relevance during pregnancy and for supporting normal liver, muscle, and nervous-system function.

Ingredient research · Calcium

Calcium is an essential mineral that gives bones and teeth their structure and also enables muscle contraction and nerve signaling. Supplements are most useful for filling inadequate intake and, often alongside vitamin D, can help preserve bone mineral density and support fracture prevention in some higher-risk groups.

• Supports bone-mineral-density outcomes in studied healthy children and older women.

Ingredient research · Iodine

Iodine is an essential mineral the thyroid uses to make hormones that regulate metabolism, growth, and development. Supplementation reliably prevents or corrects iodine deficiency and is especially important when needs rise during pregnancy for fetal brain development, but excess intake can also disturb thyroid function.

• Supports selected micronutrient and thyroid-status markers in iodine-deficient adults.

Ingredient research · Magnesium

Magnesium is an essential mineral that enables normal muscle and nerve function, energy production, heart rhythm, and bone maintenance. Supplements can correct low magnesium status and, depending on the formulation, may also help with constipation, muscle cramps, or migraine prevention in some people.

Ingredient research · Zinc

Zinc is an essential mineral needed for hundreds of enzymes, DNA and protein synthesis, immune defense, wound healing, and normal growth. Supplementation corrects low zinc status and helps restore these functions; certain zinc lozenges may also modestly shorten a common cold when used early, though this benefit depends on the formulation.

Ingredient research · Selenium

Selenium is an essential trace mineral used to make antioxidant enzymes and regulate thyroid hormone activity, linking adequate intake to thyroid, immune, and reproductive function. Supplementation can correct low selenium status, but more is not necessarily better because excessive intake can be toxic.

• Supports selected thyroid-autoantibody and TSH markers in studied people with autoimmune thyroiditis.
• Supports selected antioxidant-defense biomarkers in studied metabolic, cardiovascular, and selenium-status populations.
• Supports depression-symptom measures across a small selenium-specific randomized evidence base.

Ingredient research · Copper

Copper is an essential trace mineral used by enzymes that support iron metabolism, connective-tissue formation, energy production, antioxidant defense, and nervous and immune function. Supplementation can correct low copper status and related anemia or neurologic problems, but extra copper offers no established benefit when intake and status are adequate.

Ingredient research · Manganese

Manganese is an essential trace mineral that activates enzymes involved in energy metabolism, connective-tissue and bone formation, and antioxidant defense. Supplementation can restore these functions when intake is inadequate or deficiency is present, but added manganese has no clear general benefit for people who already get enough.

Ingredient research · Chromium

Chromium is a trace mineral thought to assist insulin action and the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Supplements are mainly used to improve blood sugar control, though benefits are usually modest or inconsistent outside rare deficiency; the trivalent chromium in supplements is distinct from toxic industrial hexavalent chromium.

Ingredient research · Gamma-Tocopherol

Gamma-Tocopherol is a naturally occurring form of vitamin E that traps certain reactive nitrogen species and complements alpha-tocopherol’s antioxidant activity. Although supplements are considered for cardiovascular and inflammatory health, distinct human benefits remain uncertain, and gamma-tocopherol is not the form used to define or reliably meet vitamin E requirements.

Ingredient research · Boron

Boron is a trace element that may influence mineral metabolism and the actions of vitamin D and steroid hormones. Supplements are mainly considered for bone and joint health, but a distinct benefit in people with adequate diets has not been firmly established.

Ingredient research · Lutein

Lutein is a carotenoid that accumulates in the retina’s macula, where it helps filter high-energy light and protect tissue from oxidative stress. Supplementation can increase macular pigment and may support visual function, with greatest clinical relevance alongside other nutrients in formulations used for age-related macular degeneration.

• Supports macular pigment density and selected contrast, glare, and retinal-sensitivity measures.
• Supports attenuation of selected UV-induced skin-response markers in healthy adults.